Identification & Site Information

• Name: Caroline (originally Carolina)
• Type: Sidewheel Steamer
• Year Built: 1822
• Builder: Disputed (New York City, Charleston, South Carolina, or Ogdensburg, New York)
• Owner: Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, New York
• Dimensions: Length: 71 feet (21.6 meters) Beam: 21 feet (6.4 meters) Depth: 6 feet (1.8 meters)
• Tonnage (Old Style): 46 tons
• Propulsion: Crosshead engine with single cylinder, single boiler, 16-foot sidewheels
• Final Location: Niagara River, near Navy Island
• Date of Incident: December 29, 1837
• Depth of Wreck: Unknown (conflicting reports on wreck’s final state)

Vessel Type Description

The Caroline was a wooden-hulled Sidewheel Steamer initially designed for commercial use. Its dimensions and propulsion system made it efficient for transporting passengers and goods along inland waterways. By the mid-1830s, it transitioned from a commercial vessel to a politically entangled entity during the Upper Canada Rebellion, ferrying arms and munitions for rebel forces.

The Caroline began its service in 1822, owned by Cornelius Vanderbilt, and operated primarily on the Hudson River and other eastern U.S. waterways. In 1835, the vessel arrived on the Great Lakes, entering service between Buffalo, New York, and nearby ports. Its peaceful existence took a dramatic turn in late 1837, when tensions erupted between Canada and the rebel forces seeking independence.

Upper Canada Rebellion

The Caroline was chartered by Canadian rebels stationed on Navy Island, located in the Niagara River. The rebels were fighting for independence from British rule, and the Steamer was used to transport arms, munitions, and supplies to support their cause.

Attack on December 29, 1837

On the night of December 29, the Caroline, moored at Schlosser on the U.S. side of the Niagara River, was seized by around 60 Canadian militia led by a Royal Navy officer. In the ensuing struggle, the ship was set ablaze. Reports conflict on whether it was deliberately sent over Niagara Falls or burned to the waterline before sinking. Casualty reports vary, but at least one American crew member, Amos Durfee, was killed during the attack, heightening tensions between the U.S. and Britain.

Diplomatic Aftermath

The destruction of the Caroline sparked outrage in the United States. Americans viewed the attack as a violation of sovereignty, as the Steamer was on U.S. soil. This incident led to the Caroline Affair, a protracted diplomatic conflict between the U.S. and Britain. The affair raised issues of territorial sovereignty and self-defense, influencing the development of international law. The principle of “necessity” as a justification for self-defense emerged from debates surrounding the incident.

Final Disposition

Fate of the Vessel: Conflicting accounts suggest the Caroline either went over Niagara Falls or burned to the waterline and sank in the river. No definitive wreck site has been identified.

Human Cost: At least one confirmed casualty, with several others injured during the attack.

Located By & Date

The wreckage of the Caroline has not been conclusively identified. Any remnants are presumed to have been dispersed or destroyed in the turbulent waters of the Niagara River.

Notices to Mariners (NOTMARs) & Advisories

There are no active NOTMARs related to the wreckage of the Caroline, given its uncertain location and the passage of time since the incident.

Current Condition & Accessibility

The physical remains of the Caroline are believed to be nonexistent due to the combination of fire damage, turbulent river conditions, and the passage of nearly two centuries. If remnants exist, they are likely irretrievable or severely degraded.

Resources & Links

• Great Lakes Ships
• Wikipedia
• Upper Canada History
• Bowling Green State University
• The Canadian Encyclopedia
• David Swayze Shipwreck File
• Thousand Islands Life
• Maritime History of the Great Lakes
• Niagara Frontier
• The Exchange – Niagara Falls
• Baldwin Collection – Toronto Public Library

Conclusion

The Caroline exemplifies the interplay between commerce, conflict, and diplomacy during the 19th century. Its destruction during the Upper Canada Rebellion transformed it from a modest Steamer into a symbol of international tension. While its physical remains are likely lost to history, the incident’s legacy continues to influence discussions on sovereignty and self-defense. The story of the Caroline remains a cornerstone in the maritime and political history of the Great Lakes region.